Fabric upholstery

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Contents

Material analysis

MasterFormat Number: 12 65 00

Raw Material

All textiles begin as raw materials and must be produced into a usable fibre. Throughout history, the process of harvesting and manufacturing textiles has been extremely labour intensive and time consuming. In addition, the production of fabric was highly dependant on the availability of local resources. Before the introduction of synthetic fibre, crops and livestock made plant and animal based fibre abundant, but the processing was done with little or no mechanical assistance.[1]

Natural Fibres

  • Animal-based - Fur and filament fibres from animals and insects contain protein and can come from a variety of sources like Merino sheep, Angora rabbits, Alpaca, Silkworms, Cashmere goats, Angora goats (fleece produces Mohair) and can also include Yak, Pashmina goats, spider silk as well as avian-based fibres from the feathers of birds. Although they all fall under this category, the physical attributes of a fabric vary based on the species and the grade of the fibre. The Merino sheep, for example, is a breed which originated Spain that produces the highest quality wool today, but different parts of the sheep’s coat will yield different softnesses of wool.
  • Vegetable-based - Seeds, leaves, skins, stalks and fruit from plants can be processed into fibres as well. Including: bamboo, cotton, hemp, jute, ramie and flax. Plants contain cellulose, which is an organic compound found in the cell walls. Cotton and wood are both largely comprised of celluose, and it is primarily harvested from these sources for industrial use. Many of these fibres are low-lustre, muted earthtones that absorb dyes very well - which makes them highly succeptible to bacteria and mildew.
  • Mineral-based - Mineral, glass and rock wool are derived from fibreglass, asbestos and basalt to product fibres that are excellent insulators.

Synthetic Fibres

Synthetic or man-made fibres are manufactured. Due to this, it is very difficult to tell the different types of fibres apart, even under a microscope. In 1664, natural philosopher and architect Robert Hooke first hypothesized the atrificial replication of silk. Several centuries later, this process could be confirmed: An experiment was conducted by Ozanam, a Frenchman who succeeded in replicating a silkworm’s secretion by drawing a needle from a solution of mulberry leaves and nitric acid. This produces a synthetic thread that dries in the air, much alike silk. This discovery not only formed the framework for synthetic fabrics - it also lead to the development of fibre that was used in the fila- ments of early lightbulbs. Today, many man-made materials are similarly augmented. Fabrics can be treated to become stain, wrinkle and water-resistant. The physical properties of synthetic fabrics and range of available colours are extreme in variety, since they can be tailored specifically as well as combined with other natural and syntheitc fibres to meet the specific needs of the consumer. Variations of synthetic fabrics include: satin, spandex, acetate, nylon, rayon, acrylic, polyester, triacetate, polypropylene and lyocell, latex, aramid, olefin, ingeo and lurex.[2]

Physical Properties

Finish and aesthetic qualities

  • Fabric can be selected for their look and modified by a variety of processes to achieve the required performance.
  • A textile woven from an easily stained fiber can be coated with a thin layer of vinyl and thus converted for use on restaurant seating.
  • Any type of treatment can change the nature of a fabric, such as color, dimensional stability, hand, luster or stiffness.
  • Extra strength and durability can be added to a loose weave fabric with the application of a fabric backing, making it usable as an upholstery fabric. [3]

Performance

  • Fabric can be treated to be wrinkle, stain and water resistant.

Dimensional and opening restriction

  • Fabric is sold by the yard.
  • Sizes varies by fabric manufacturer.

Acoustics

  • Fabric alone does not have significant acoustic properties but absorptive materials are commonly incorporated into panels or wall systems if needed. [4]

Flammability Rating

  • Fabrics sometimes are treated with flame resistance chemicals. There are two common types of flame resistant treatment : Fluor bromide and disodium phosphate compounds. Sulfur based compounds are used only to treat nylon fibers.
  • Fluor bromide(polymer) flame resistant treatment is applied through an immersion process while disodium phosphates less expensive and has certain drawbacks. The disodium phosphate solution has an erosion effect on metals, such as upholstery tacks, staples, etc. [5]

Processing

There are six basic ways to form a fabric:

  • Weaving - Prior to the the development of yarn, weaving started an estimated 6000 years ago when grass, reeds, and animal hides were intertwined to form a structured cloth. The process involves a warp, which is secured with equal tension vertically to a loom across which the weft is horizontally interlaced.
  • Knitting - The formation of fabric by looping a continuous yarn. Variations of motions produce different interlocking structures.
  • Braiding - A number of interlacing yarns travelling along one axis to create a tubular structure like shoelaces or ropes. The simplest braid can be created by plaiting three strands.
  • Lace-making (twining) - backing a piece to create fabrics with fine holes throughout the piece.
  • Knotting (netting)
  • Felting - A non-woven fabric of entangled animal fibre, matted by heat, moisture and pressure. Woven and knitted fabrics can be felted, often by accident in the scouring, washing and dye-

ing processes. All techniques except felting require yarns that have been formed in some previous yarn production process.[6]

Mechanization

The first known industrializations of cloth manufacturing can be traced back to the Renaissance. In 1533, Johann Jurgen, a German craftsman developed the Saxony wheel from one of Leonardo Da Vinci’s sketches. Increases in population, globalization, technological advancements, and learning facilitate the continual growth of this industry. Today, machinery is computer programmed, and fabrics can be woven with streams of air and cut with laser beams. Although, handcrafted items are still coveted despire the ease of mechanization because the fabrics are formed by human hands.[7]

Wool from sheep is one of the earliest textile fibres available for spinning into yarn and then weaving into cloth. .[8]

This requires a two stage spinning process where a fleece is opened to form a sliver of fibres which can be drawn out to produce an increasingly fine thread. This is then twisted to form a yarn.[9]

In the past, ancestors twisted a few fibres from a lock of wool to form an extending length of yarn which would be wound into a ball. [10] At a later stage the yarn was wound on to a stick and a simple flywheel added at the lower end to produce a spindle. From this the spinning wheel developed, invented first in India and then reaching Europe around the late 14th century.

The First Loom consisted of a single tree branch which the run parallel to the ground. The lengthwise warp threads were hung from this, weighted at their lower ends and the weft threads interlaced to form a very rough cloth.[11] A framework later replaced the tree branch to form a vertical loom, as used by the ancient Greeks, which was then switched to a horizontal orientation.[12] The ancient Egyptians are said to have invented the shuttle for holding the weft and to have attached the warp threads to two sticks in order to part the threads so that the shuttle could pass through.[13]

For centuries both the spinning and weaving processes were traditionally carried out by hand in the home on a cottage industry basis - weaving by men and spinning by women. The impetus for a major reorganisation in tex- tile production came in the 1700s as inexpensive, good-quality textiles, imported from India and the Far East, gradually began replacing European goods in international markets.[14] 50 The need was to increase domestic produc- tion and lower costs by substituting the laborious hand processes for more efficient machine operations.[15] Many important inventions took place during this period, often having important spin-off effects on other parts of the overall process of manufacture. In 1733 John Kay of Bury, England, introduced his flying shuttle which speeded up the weaving process so much that output was often doubled.[16] The problem was that the supply of yarn from the spinners was insufficient to keep pace with the increase in production. The first improvement to the early spinning machines came in 1737 when Lewis Paul and John Wyatt invented the roller method of spinning which made the spinning of yarn pos- sible without having to work it with the fingers.[17] In 1764, a Blackburn weaver and carpenter, James Hargreaves invented the famous spinning jenny which by 1766 had been improved to accommodate up to 100 spindles and so vastly accelerated the spinning operation.[18] This was followed by Sir Richard Arkwright’s spinning frame which was powered by water and became known as the water frame.[19] Soon after in 1779 came the spinning mule, invented by the spinner Samuel Crompton from Bolton, combining the features of both the spinning jenny and the water frame. The advances in spinning technology led in turn to a bottleneck in weaving, as yarn was now being produced much faster than it could be woven. The solution was to harness steam power to drive the looms and it was Edward Cartwright, an Anglican clergyman, who worked out how to do this. By the mid 1780s he had produced the first steam powered loom.[20]

Environmental Impact

  • Knoll Textile company's fabric contain 49%+ recycled content or 75%+ natural fiber and may contribute to LEED certification.
  • Nano-Tex and Nano-Tex with Dura-block company are cradle to cradle certified by MBDC. With Nano-Tex treatment, fabric can still be recycled and biodegradable. Chemicals utilized by Nano-Tex meet or exceed all environmental, health and safety standards mandated by the EPA, OSHA and CPSC as well as regulatory agencies throughout the world. [21]

LEED

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Ecological Footprint

One way to determine if fabric is eco-friendly is to gauge how much energy and what resources it takes to bring a raw material to full growth. There are four major environmental elements related with the making of textiles which are water, energy, pollution, and use of non-renewable resources. All of these factors contribute to the ecological foot print of fabrics and textiles. Textiles have a high ecological footprint. The textile industry is in 5th place for highest carbon footprint, after metals, non-metallic mineral products, petroleum and chemicals. In the developing countries such as India, the carbon footprint of textiles is even higher. The textile industry is number one industrial polluter of fresh water on Earth.Natural Fabrics have a lower ecological foot print than synthetic fabrics. Fabrics are generally not environmentally friendly as they tend to use many chemicals during processing, a significant amount of water to grow and some fibre plants require a lot of pesticides; these all contribute to the material's overall carbon footprint. Although cotton is a natural fibre, cotton production is unfriendly to the environment because 22% of insecticides used globally are used to sustain cotton fields. Two hundred and sixty gallons of water are required to grow enough fibre for three square feet of fabric. Bleaching and dyeing often use toxic chemicals and release toxins into the environment. Organic cotton fabrics consist of cotton fibres from certified and regulated organic farming systems. The regulations for organic farming eliminate the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Silk also has a high ecological footprint. Silk needs to be scoured to remove the thick lustrous material on it. The most common chemical used for scouring is dry cleaning fluid. This fluid is harmful to the environment. The cultivation and manufacturing of linen is significantly more eco-friendly than its nearest competitor, cotton. The flax plant, from which linen fabric derives, is easy to grow organically; it needs little fertilizer to grow and requires few, if any, pesticides. Neither weaving nor spinning linen has a large impact on the environment. Only in processing (drying and retting) are chemicals sometimes required, and these must be neutralized before being released into ground or water supplies. In addition, the other parts of the flax plant not used in the process either biodegrade or are used in the making of other flax-based products. Linseed oil, for example, is made from flax seedpods; mills often use other linen byproducts for materials such as fiber board, paper, and bank notes. Hemp is a natural fabric that grows quickly and densely. Although hemp does not require herbicides and artificial fertilizers, it is stiff and requires a lot of processing to soften enough to make fabrics. Hemp is considered a green fabric unless toxic chemicals are used during processing. Leather can be very environmentally friendly. However, although leather itself is natural, the processing which leather undergoes, called "tanning," uses highly toxic chemicals. Thus, leather can have a high carbon footprint. Rayon is a cellulose-base man-made fibre, made from wood chips. Rayon fabrics generally breathe better than other synthetic fibres. The process used to convert wood chips into usable fibres requires the heavy use of toxic chemicals; these chemicals contribute to rayon's high carbon footprint.

Environmental and Non-Renewable Fabrics

Polyester is a petroleum-based by-product, polyester has the highest carbon footprint of all fabrics and consumes a lot of energy during fabrication, making this one of the worst possible fabrics to use. Polyester is a popular fabric because of its low price and ease of fabrication. It is the worst synthetic fabric because it is hard to decompose and releases toxins in the atmosphere. Nylon is also a petroleum-based by-product. It is un-ecological because of the several toxic by-products generated during the fabrication of nylon. Nylon alos produces nitrogen dioxide (N2O) during manufacturing which is Spandex is a polyurethane product, which is a petroleum by-product so it has a high ecological foot- print. Spandex is used as a fibre supplement to introduce stretch into a fabric. Most other artificial or synthetic fibers have much higher carbon footprints than natural fabrics. No fabric or textile has a perfect ecological record as all fibres take resources from the earth. It is best to choose fabrics that are environmentally certified with some of the emerging certification stan- dards for example the GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard) or buying only certified green products which put pressure on the textile industry to make more environmentally friendly fabrics. Staying away of synthetic fibres is generally better from an environmental standpoint especially petroleum based fibres.

Biodegradable Fibres

Bamboo is a natural antibacterial plant, the fabric created from bamboo is moisture repellent. It is also biodegradable; in fact, it tends to wear out rather quickly. Bamboo can be transformed into yarn by chemical or via mechanical processing making it environmentally friendly. Bamboo is a fast growing plant so it does not require pesticides; bamboo grows so quickly that it is often considered a pest. Soy silk is made from the by-products created from the tofu-making procedure. The high protein content in soy silk fibres makes them absorb natural dyes easily so artificial dyes are not needed. Soy silk is a fibre that is natural and renewable raw material, making it easily biodegradable and recyclable. Engineers of synthetic decorative fabrics featured here considered the manufacturing process, the components and the whole life cycle of the fabric to synthesize a solution that is environmental friendly as possible. Based on Eco Intelligence polyesters, the textiles are produced using renew- able energy and without the use of antimony - a known carcinogen toxic to the heart, lung, liver and skin – chlorine, or any other PBTs (persistent bioac- cumulative toxins). The textiles are designed to be recycled indefinitely, and in 2006 the manufacturer achieved a Cradle-to-Cradle Gold certificate from MBDC, a design and process consultancy that specializes in environmental issues.

Recyclable Fibres

The industry uses a certain percentage of on preconsumer and post-consumer materials for fiber. Pre-consumer material comes from industrial waste whereas post-consumer material comes from the products that are fully consumed. To produce other products using pre-consumer wastes can reduce the waste at the beginning. Post industrial recycled yarns from the textile industry can be used to produce a variety of products. Some Fabrics can be recycled but cleaning product or agents must interfere since this uses energy and cannot be endlessly recycled. Mixed/man made fabrics with certain finishes also cannot be re-cycled. Most man-made fabrics such as nylon cannot be recycled. Companies are becoming more environmentally aware and are pro-ducing and using more recyclable fabrics. For example: Fortel - A polyester fibre made from recycled plastic bottles. It is generally made into fleece. The fleece produced from Fortrel is valued from its warmth and durability. However, the fibre is not completely “green”, it is a by-product of petroleum production, but removed from the main manufacture process for most synthetic fibres. Recyclable Polyester -The energy needed to make the recyclable polyester is less than what is needed to make the polyester. Various studies all agree that it takes from 33% to 53% less energy to make recyclable polyester. Recyclable polyester is becoming more popular in the textile industry.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Health Canada defines VOCs as “volatile organic compounds that have boiling points roughly in the range of 50-250°C.” VOCs in- clude formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, toluene, and benzene that are readily released from building materials, including fabrics, into the air. VOC is released from solid materials, such as flooring and fab- ric. VOCs are constantly emitted, slowly and continually at low lev- els over a long period of time. Commonly Encountered VOC’s and their Sources, fabric is one of the sources that causes terpenes (limonene, a-pinene).Terpenes are mainly produced by a large variety of plants.91 Some natural fab- rics are produced by plants, which could be the source of VOCs. Some fabrics are added VOCs to reach better performance and longer lifespan.

Life Safety & Rating Standards

Applications

Leading Manufacturers

  • Nano-Tex
  • Knoll Textiles
  • Arc.com

Traditional Uses

Fabric has been for millennia in homes as bedding, blankets, curtains, window treatments and clothing.

Innovative Uses

Traditionally, textiles relied on extraneous materials for support but technological developments have since reduced these limitations. For example, Gilli Kuchik’s Industrial Upholstery project [1] explores fabric as a structural part of furniture as opposed to a decorative one: the fabric is injected with hi-density polyurethane for stability and polyurethane foam for comfort.

References

Similar materials

Notes

  1. ↑ Dixon, Mary and Jackman, Dianne. The Guide To Textiles For Interior Designers. Winnipeg: Peguis, 1983.
  2. ↑ Dixon, Mary and Jackman, Dianne. The Guide To Textiles For Interior Designers. Winnipeg: Peguis, 1983.
  3. ↑ Specifying interiors - A guide to Construction and Ff&E for Residential and Commercial Interior Projects by Maryrose McGowan
  4. ↑ http://www.acousticfabric.com/
  5. ↑ Specifying interiors - A guide to Construction and Ff&E for Residential and Commercial Interior Projects by Maryrose McGowan
  6. ↑ Dixon, Mary and Jackman, Dianne. The Guide To Textiles For Interior Designers. Win- nipeg: Peguis, 1983.
  7. ↑ Dixon. Jackman. The Guide To Textiles For Interior Designers. p.12
  8. ↑ “Textile.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Oct. 2010 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589392/textile
  9. ↑ “Textile.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Oct. 2010 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589392/textile
  10. ↑ “clothing and footwear industry.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Oct. 2010 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/122281/clothing-and-footwear-industry
  11. ↑ “clothing and footwear industry.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Oct. 2010 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/122281/clothing-and-footwear-industry
  12. ↑ “clothing and footwear industry.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Oct. 2010 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/122281/clothing-and-footwear-industry
  13. ↑ “Interior Design.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Oct. 2010 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/290278/interior-design
  14. ↑ “Interior Design.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Oct. 2010 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/290278/interior-design
  15. ↑ Elisseeff, Vadime. The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce, UNESCO Publishing / Berghahn Books, 2001
  16. ↑ Elisseeff, Vadime. The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce, UNESCO Publishing / Berghahn Books, 2001
  17. ↑ Elisseeff, Vadime. The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce, UNESCO Publishing / Berghahn Books, 2001
  18. ↑ Elisseeff, Vadime. The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce, UNESCO Publishing / Berghahn Books, 2001
  19. ↑ Jenkins, David, ed.: The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003
  20. ↑ Jenkins, David, ed.: The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003
  21. ↑ http://www.nano-tex.com/index.html

Student Contributors

  • Neha Shah, Spring 2009
  • Laura McQuarrie, Fall 2010-IRT201 Fabrics&Textiles
  • Jing Li, Fall 2010-IRT201 Fabrics&Textiles

External links

The Textile Museum of Canada [2] Social Fabric [3]

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