Plastic

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Contents

Material specifications

Leading manufacturers

Most of the plastic manufacturers, such as Colorite Polymers, Clariant Performance Plastics and Chase Plastics Services Inc. are located in the United States.[1] In addition, Dow, DuPont, General Electric, Monsanto, Phillips, etc. sell plastic in large quantities. Many of the plastic manufacturers, such as Outwater Plastics Industries Inc., O.Berk Company and GAF Materials Corporation, are located in New Jersey, along the coast. Besides being found in the North East area of the United States, quite a few plastic manufacturers are also located in the North West area of Europe. As well, there are a significant number of plastic manufacturers spread across Canada. For example, the Canadian Plastics Industry Association, which is located in Mississauga, provides plastic products manufacturing, machinery, moulds and resins.[2] Other resin manufacturers located in Canada include ACLO Compounders Inc., Celanese EVA Performance Polymers and Canuch Compounders Inc.

Material application

Traditional material applications

Vinyl is commonly used as cladding for exterior surfaces and as wall coverings for interior surfaces. The material is employed due to its insulation value as well as its ability to conserve energy by reducing heating and cooling loads. In addition, the material is durable, easy to clean, and costs less to manufacture compared to other wall coverings. Spray Polyeurethane (SPF) is most commonly used to insulated roofing systems. The material is durable, posses strong moisture repellant properties, saves energy during its life cycle, and can be implemented over existing materials. Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) is most commonly used in walls as structural insulated panels. This plastic polymer has excellent insulating properties reducing both the heating and cooling loads on residential and commercial buildings. Polyolefin Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is employed to create pipes and pipe fittings due to the fact that the material allows for fewer leak points and prevents waste from entering the water system. Polycarbonate is extensively used in automobile windows due to its lightweight, shatter resistant, and low thermal conductivity properties. Polyethylene Piping (PEX) is most commonly used in the residential sector as part of the manifold system as a result of its flexibility, weight, and ease of installation. Polymetric timbers composed of recycled plastic is most often employed as lumber for decks, fences, and outdoor picnic tables due to the material’s lack of splintering and ease of care. [3]

Emerging/innovative material applications

Currently, recycled and organic plastics are being ingeniously moudled by radical architects, designers, and corporations attempting to reach the full potential of plastic as a design medium. Recycled plastic is now being reintroduced as laminate flooring where recycled industrial plastic wastes are repurposed and combined with wheat straw cellulose; a common form of agricultural waste.[4] Additional plastic building materials include hollow polycarbonate sheets and U.V. resistance acrylic panels. Polycarbonate sheets are produced in varied thicknesses, widths, lengths, colours, and function as both interior and exterior treatments.[5] They are most effective when employed as dynamic roofing systems due to their relatively high U.V. resistant coating.[6] Finally, U.V. resistant acrylics posses the same flexibility in dimension as Polycarbonate sheets but posses a much greater surface strength.[7] This acrylic is more effective than glass at resisting U.V. rays and surface damage. The product is also available for interior and exterior use.[8]

Architecture firms such as Despang Architekten, Gracia Studio, and Rudy Ricciotti Architects have also explored the potential of plastic as a material. Despang Architekten transposed the materiality of 1930’s resilient flooring to develop a unique counter area exposed to high traffic in their Kriepe’s Coffee Shop. Gracia Studio demonstrates the transparency and adaptability of plastic though the use of polycarbonate sheeting in Casa GA. By using these panels for select interior/exterior walls and roofing systems, Gracia Studio has developed a structure whose components can be modified and adapted rapidly as a result of material choice.[9] Finally, Rudy Ricciotti Architects explore the acoustical properties of composite plastics for use in an auditorium setting at the Philarmonique Nickolasisall. By combining fiberglass, CNC milled resin, and MDF, Brown developed bulbous acoustical wall panels finished with polymer.[10]

Radical advancements have been made in the use of plastic as a means of architectural cladding. The Finnish Pavilion built by architects JKMM Architects for the Shanghai Expo is covered with UPM ProFi composite plastic cladding. This cladding is composed of a combination of recycled polymers created by the production of other UPM products mixed with natural fibers and injection moulded into the shingle form. The reuse of previously unusable material increases the life cycle of UPM’s other products as well as transfers properties such as resistance to UV rays and moisture.[11]

Another corollary of the Shanghai Expo is the development of transparent cement.[12] The material, developed by the Italcementi Group for the Italian Pavilion, is composed of bonded resin matrixes caste into cement panels while retaining a similar structural integrity. Lastly, the Austrian pavilion completed by SPAN Architects employs the use of CNC milled polyurethane coated with synthetic resin to develop a fluid multi perspective interior landscape, unifying the various elements of the structure developing an organic relationship between the walls, roofing, flooring, and furnishings.[13]

Physical properties

Plastics are made up of binders, plasticizers, fillers, pigments and additives. Binders are most commonly synthetic resins, but may be composed of more natural materials. In either case, binders consist of polymers, which are long chainlike molecules. Natural polymers include cellulose derivatives, milk protein and casein. Monomers are small molecules that compose synthetic polymers. Plasticizers can increase the flexibility of the material when added to a binder, whereas fillers can increase resistance to shock.[14]

There are two types of plastics: thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics can be shaped and melted repeatedly with the application of heat. They include nylon, vinyl, polystyrene, polyethylene, cellulose acetate, acetals and acrylic. Thermosetting plastics can only be melted and shaped once, because when heat and pressure are initially applied to a thermosetting binder, the molecular chains become cross-linked, thus preventing any slippage if heat and pressure are reapplied. Thermosets include epoxy, amino, unsaturated and phenolic polyesters.[15]

Different types of plastics have varying density, glass transition temperature, tensile strength, resistance to chemical products, and imperviousness to water.[16]

Acetals are highly rigid, resilient, strong and tough. Acrylics are hard, scratch and weather resistant and slow burning, and transmit light well. Amino resists are thermally resistant, hard, scratch and stain resistant, and available in a variety of opaque or translucent colours; they will not burn or soften. Cellulosics are tough, have lustrous surfaces, and can be found in transparent, translucent or opaque forms.

Phenolics are hard, brittle and heat resistant. Polyesters are strong and highly resistant; they range from flexible to rigid, as well as being naturally colourless and clear.

Polyolefins can be tough or brittle, and are slow burning. Polyurethanes are tear, scratch and shock resistant, are stretchy and are natural amber in colour. Styrenes melt over varying temperatures and pressures, and are moldable, insulating, odourless, smooth and clear.

Vinyl can be hard or soft, rigid or flexible, resistant to wear and available in a wide range of colours.[17] Nylon has high heat and chemical resistance, as well as high wear resistance.[18]

  • Dimensions: Raw plastic is typically sold in either liquid, powder or pellet form depending on the type of plastic and is therefore weighed by pounds (lbs) or metric tons.[19] Plastic can be sold as a large quantity commodity by a manufacturing plant or in smaller quantities by a distributor. For example, as a commodity, plastic is sold by rail cars (190,000 lbs); truckload boxes, truckload bags, and bulk trucks (42,000 lbs) on The Plastics Exchange.[20] Distributors may also sell processed plastic units that have undergone blow moulding, calendaring, extrusion, compression moulding, casting, rotational moulding, injection moulding, or thermoforming.[21] Expenses for processing plastic depend on the initial cost of machinery and amount of materials used. For example, injection moulding typically requires higher initial capital cost but offers cheap unit costs while rotation moulding is the opposite. In this case unit sizes depend on designer specifications and the capabilities of the machinery.[22]
  • Composition: The manufacturing of plastics usually begins by treating components of crude oil or natural gas in a "cracking process." This process results in the conversion of these components into hydrocarbon monomers, such as ethylene and propylene. [23] Plastic, or as it is called in the scientific community, a polymer, is chemically a macromolecule, which is a large molecule made from bonding monomers into a long chain. Monomers are small molecules that are chemically developed from three basic materials: petroleum, natural gas and agricultural materials (such as wood, cotton or soybean byproducts). Basic monomers include styrene, propylene and ethylene. Once bonded into polymers, they become polystyrene, polypropylene and polyethylene.[24]

Installation and maintenance

Vinyl Siding: Before installing vinyl siding, it is very important to make sure that the surface is properly cleaned with soap and water. In order to perform the installation, certain tools, such as a hammer, a fine-tooth saw, a square, a chalk-line, a level and a tape measure, are required. To install the siding panel, start from the centre and use a nail or other type of fastener to secure each panel, pushing up from the bottom so that the panel slides under the one above and locks.

Make sure to have a distance of 1/32’’ between the fastener head and the siding panel. Due to expansion and contraction, leave a minimum space of 1/4’’ between all openings and stops. Make sure not to caulk or J-trim where the two panels meet.

Exterior vinyl requires little maintenance and lasts for about 20 years. It can be cleaned using a washing brush; however, avoid using stiff bristle brushes because they can change the appearance of vinyl. To clean dirt, you can use a special formula made up of 1/3 cup of powdered detergent, 2/3 cup of powdered household cleaner, and 1 gallon of water.[25]

SPF roofing system: Spray Polyurethane Foam (SPF) is commonly used for roof covering as an insulator. SPF is seamless, lightweight, energy efficient and self-flashing, and offers the most efficiency. The substance can be applied over all substring (on new construction or retro fit projects) by a worker or a robot. The foam is sprayed evenly as a liquid and, in seconds, it expands to 30 times its volume, due to a chemical reaction between two substances: isocyanate and polyol resin. SPF does not require a great deal of maintenance; however, every 20 years, the silicone coating needs to be applied. SPF roofs have a performance life of 30 years. A Certified Spray Polyurethane Foam technician is required to repair any roof damage. It is easy to locate and repair the damage in SPF roofs, because of the membrane-closed cell. A caulking technique can be used to repair minor damage.[26]

Multi-Wall Polycarbonate: Multi-Wall Polycarbonate is flexible and can be used on both gable and arched style greenhouses. The panels with ribs must be positioned to run vertically, and the bottom edges are to be left open for water drainage. A five degree slope is required. The top and the bottom of a Multi-Wall Polycarbonate sheet with a 1 inch anti-dust foil tape are to be sealed to avoid dirt getting through. Due to expansion and contraction, holes are drilled for fasteners slightly bigger. When fastening the panels, you should use screws that have neoprene or EPDM washers, and the fasteners should be at least 12 inches apart. See the following diagram for fastening positioning.[27]

The maintenance is very simple for Multi-wall Polycarbonate. The panels can be washed using a sponge or soft cloth with soap or detergent and lukewarm water. Make sure to dry the sheets using chamois leather.[28]

PVC (Polyolefin, polyvinyl chloride): PVC is lightweight, strong, and easy to work with. It is ideal for plumbing and drain applications. It can be cut to fit a certain length. To cut the pipe, use a hacksaw and make sure to always measure twice, since it is important to get the size right. After cutting the piece, burr the inside edges. Before installing make sure the pipe is cleaned with all-purpose pipe cleaner. It is important to move quickly when putting the pipe in the cement because cement dries fast. First, put an inner coating of cement, put the PVC pipe with the joint, and turn the pipe 1/4 to make sure the cement covers the pipe completely. Pipe hangars need to be installed for pipe support.[29]

Regular maintenance, such as using cleaning agents that digest bacteria in the pipes should be used monthly to avoid further problems. This will reduce odors, built-up, and rids of unnecessary particles.[30]

PEX (Polyethylene piping): Manifold System is a plumbing system that distributes hot and cold water around the house. The advantage of this is that it is easy to install and this system allows any leakage to be identified quickly. To install this system, a plumbing manifold, PEX pipes, a drill and drill bits, a soldering iron, slip joint pliers, crimp rings, and crimping tools are required. First, the plumbing manifold needs to be installed preferably near the water heater outlet. Then, attach all hot and cold pipes to the fixtures around the house. Next use the metal pipes to attach PEX pipes to the main fixture and secure it with the crimp rings. Lastly, the plumbing manifold needs to be connected to the main water supply. For maintenance, annually check the water pressure to make sure there is no blockage in the pipe.[31]

Cost analysis

Plastics are really popular, and price has a lot to do with it; unfortunately the cost of plastic is becoming more expensive due to the price of oil.

Typical Prices

ABS 95-115 Cents/Lb

Acrylic 117 cents/Lb

Acrylonitrile Copol 101-116 cents/Lb

Epoxy 123-166 cents/Lb

Liquid Crystal Polymers 690-2200 cents/Lb

Melamine Compound 90-94 cents/Lb

Nylon 134-360 cents/Lb

Polycarnonate 163-191 cents/Lb

Polyester 145-165 cents/Lb

Polypropylene 81-100 cents/Lb

Polystyrene 61-68 cents/Lb

Polyurethane 185-295 cents/Lb

Silicones 343-3148 cents/Lb

[32]

Material background

Place of origin / raw state / composition

Plastic is a relatively new material, being just over a hundred years old. Because it is a synthetic, man-made material, plastic’s origins are rooted in the history of its chemistry. Plastic is derived from natural resins found in trees and other plants, such as pine sap.[33]

Harvesting and manufacturing process

The four main processing methods used to make plastic products are the following:

1. Extrusion: Is a process where the state of plastic is converted from solid to liquid. First, the plastic goes through the hopper into an extruder (a heated chamber) with the help of continuously revolving screws. Then, through the extrusion chamber, the plastic is melted and is cooled by water or air. As a result, the plastic is shaped into a finished product. During the process, the plastic doesn’t lose any of its properties while being changed from solid to liquid and back again. Plastic bags and films are made from this process.synthetic plastic is created. Extrusion moulding is one common practice and involves a heated plastic compound being forced through a forming die made in the desired shape; the formed plastic cools under blown air or in a water bath and hardens on a moving belt. Rods, thin film or tubes are then extruded and cut to desired lengths. It may also be noted that plastic fibres can be produced via the extrusion process in that liquid resin is squeezed through thousands of holes known as spinnerets so as to produce the threads from which plastic fabrics are made.5

2. Injection moulding: Is the process where plastic pellets or granules are put through the hopper into a heating chamber, where the material changes its state from solid to liquid. Next, it is put into a cooled, closed mould and, once the plastic is cool, the finished part is ejected. This is a common method to shape plastic resins and is used to make butter tubs, yogurt containers, etc.[34] the plastic compound is heated to a semi-fluid state, is squirted into a mold under pressure and allowed to harden; the mould is then opened and the plastic is released. Injection moulding is used to form cups and toys and larger objects, too. In a related vein, blow moulding is also common and involves a partially-shaped, heated plastic form being inserted into a mould; air is blown into the form, forcing it to expand to the shape of the mould. In the indirect method, a plastic sheet or special shape is heated then clamped into a die and a cover; air is forced between the plastic and the cover and presses the material into whatever shape the die happens to be in." section 3 http://www.reachoutmichigan.org/funexperiments/quick/plastic.html"

3. Blow moulding: Can be used in combination with the extrusion or injection moulding processes. During the extrusion blow moulding process, the die forms a hollow tube called a parison, where it has a hole at one end, allowing for the compressed air to pass through. Then the parison is inflated, and as the plastic is cooled inside the mould, it changes to solid. This process is used to make commercial drums, milk bottles, etc. With the injection moulding process, the plastic is injected into a hollow form, then transferred onto a core rod, which is a metal shank, and finally transferred into a blow mould. As the plastic is cooled inside, it retains the shape of a hollow tube. This process is used to make carbonated soft drink bottles.[35]

4. Rational Moulding: Is the process where a heated hollow mould, which is mounted on a machine and rotates on two axes, is filled with plastic. Then, the mould is heated and rotated slowly, allowing the plastic to disperse and stick to the walls of the mould. Afterwards, the mould is cooled and the plastic turns into a solid, hollow product. This process is frequently used for large toys, kayaks, etc.[36]

History

1839: Eduard Simon, a German apothecary, first discovered polystyrene, which is a strong plastic made from erethylene and benzene. It can be injected, extruded or blow molded, thus rendering it useful for beverage cups, packaging, building materials, etc.[37]

1862: Alexander Parkes created the first man-made plastic called Parkesine, which is made from cellulose.[38]

1863: John Wesley Hyatt was a young printer who was seeking a substitute for the ivory in billiard balls. He invented the first American plastic, which was originally called Celluloid. His discovery was partially accidental in that his observation of a spillage of collodion made him realize that the material turned into a tough, flexible film. However, his final solution was achieved by mixing pyroxylin, made from cotton (one of nature's polymerics), and nitric acid, with camphor. Celluloid then spread quickly across many markets, and was used by George Eastman in 1882 for the first photographic film. Today, this material is still used, but under the name of cellulose nitrate.[39]

1907: Bakelite made its appearance as the first synthetic, man-made plastic. It is made from a resin coal tar that rapidly hardens and takes the shape of its container. Bakelite, unlike other plastics, does not melt, but keeps its shape under stress and heat.5 Another discovery made at this time was phenol formaldehyde resins, which Leo Baekeland produced by mixing phenol and formaldehyde.[40]

1908: Jacques E. Brandenberger was the inventor of Cellophane. In the manufacturing process, an alkaline solution of cellulose fibers (usually wood or cotton), known as viscose, is extruded through a narrow slit into an acid bath. The acid regenerates the cellulose, forming a film. Further treatment, such as washing and bleaching, is then performed.

1909: Leo Hendrik Baekeland mixed carbolic acid with formaldehyde to come up with phenol-formaldehyde, which was considered to be the first real plastic... Baekeland also introduced phenoformaldehyde plastic, which was used globally. He further developed techniques so that phenoformaldehyde can be shaped under heat and pressure into different forms.

1920: Two important materials were developed at this time. One was cellulose acetate, which can be molded into light colored articles. The other was polyvinyl chloride, also called PVC or vinyl, which replaced costly natural rubber. It is used for piping, clothing, upholstery, tubing, flooring, etc.[41]

1930’s: Acrylic resins were introduced and became the third largest-selling plastic, being used for signs, glazing, toys, etc. Also, melamine resin was introduced in the form of a binder and eventually became an important element of such products as decorative laminate topes, vertical surfacing, etc.[42]

1933: Polyvinylidene chloride was discovered at Dow Chemical, and was sprayed onto military equipment to provide protection.[43]

1937: Otto Bayer discovered polyurethanes, which are formed through a reaction between polyol and disocyanate.[44]

1938: Roy Plunkett discovered Teflon, which is very popular in today’s kitchenware because it is resistant to acids, cold and heat.[45]

1939: Wallace Carothers discovered nylon and neoprene.[46]

1939-1945: Polyethylene was developed because there was a demand for a material that could be used as radar cable during World War II. Polyester resin was also developed during the war for military use and, later, highly influenced the boat-building business in the United States. Today, polyethylene has become the most popular plastic, and is used to make products like soda bottles, milk jugs, grocery and dry-cleaning bags, plastic food storage containers, etc. Another plastic developed during the war, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, or ABS, is now often used in household appliances, safety helmets, pipes, telephone headsets and luggage.[47]

1950: Polypropylene, acetal, polycarbonate and nylon formed a sub-group of plastics called engineering thermoplastics. Due to their thermal and dimensional stability, these plastics were able to compete with many forms of metal.[48]

1951: Polyester fabric was marketed by DuPont, under the name Dacron. Polyester was also used for bottles, film, tape, canoes and holograms, and as a finish on high quality wood products.[49]

1953: Daniel Fox was a chemist at General Electric who discovered a polycarbonate resin thermoplastic that has the same appearance as acrylic, but is more durable.[50]

1954: Ray McIntire invented Styrofoam by combining styrene with isobutylene, a volatile liquid, under pressure.[51]

1960s and 1970s: Thermoplastic polyesters were introduced with a new feature whereby these plastics were able to resist certain gas permeation, which made them appropriate for the use of packaging. Also, the sub-group “high temperature plastics” began to emerge, due to the demand of thermal needs of aerospace and aircraft applications. This group includes plastics such as polyamides, polyamide-imides, aromatic polyesters, polyphenylene sulfide, polyether sulfone, etc. However, today, high temperature plastics are categorized under commercial needs that require the plastics to function at a continuous temperature of 400 degrees F, or more.[52]

1962: Lexan resin began to be used by NASA for both astronaut helmet assemblies and visors.[53]

1968: Lexan sheet made from Lexan resin was developed by SABIC Innovative Plastics, and is used in windows, signs, greenhouses, etc.[54]

1978: Linear Low Density Polyethylene was developed.[55]

1985: Liquid Crystal Polymers were developed.[56]

Cultural Significance

The relationship between society and plastic is paradoxical. Since its creation in 1862, the material has become a defining component of 20th century culture.[57] The material has come to represent both the progression of civilization, as well as the disregard for the consequences of new technology. The original definition of plastic refered to its physical properties, defining it as something that could be molded or shaped.[58] This term was used to define the freedom expressed in design from the late 16th Century onward.[59] However, the first definition present in modern dictionaries reflects our current association with plastic as false and untruthful.[60]

The process of plastic’s evolution to its current cultural connotation began in the early 1930s. Polythene, polymethyl methacrylate, polyamide and many other “poly” plastics were developed and later employed in war efforts.[61] The material was relatively cheap to make and could be produced locally.[62] Through its use, the individual was empowered by the material’s nationalistic connotation. As a result of war time efforts, several new forms of synthetic plastics were developed that later became available to the public.[63] It was during this period and the early 1950s where the plastics developed for and during the war began to revolutionize consumer culture.[64] Plastic was viewed as a catalyst to promote economic prosperity as a result of instability caused by consecutive wars.[65] Consumerism was promoted as a means of patriotism, resulting in multiple plastic-based designs by industry leaders such as Eero Saarinen, as well as Charles and Ray Eames.[66] As a result of economic instability, plastic was employed, due to its malleability and low production cost, to develop temporary consumer goods.[67] Products such as plastic children’s toys, tupperware and other household objects redefined the residential interior and shifted the connotations of the material from patriotism to sub-urbanism. The promotion of plastic as a consumer material during this period has resulted in our view of plastic as cheap, vain and artificial.

Through the rest of the 1950s and the 1960s, acrylic paint became the new medium for popular artists such as Jackson Pollock and Roy Lichtenstien.[68] Though still associated with materiality, plastic slowly evolved as a means to champion the avant-garde. The late 1960s and early 1970s brought about the use of polyurethane as a popular material for industrial design. Plastic products were liberally used by anti-design collectives such as Studio 65, Studio Alchimia and Archizoom.[69] Reinforcing the forms of Pop Design, these collectives further promoted plastic as a consumer material.

The rapid growth of multiple industries during this time can be directly attributed to the advancements in plastic manipulation. Plastic redefined the textile industry, introducing polyester as a cheap, efficient material.[70] As a result, this era became synonymous with the fabric, rendering society’s view of the material as cheesy, cheap and uncomfortable.[71]

Plastic thus became associated with trendy and temporary low quality consumerism.[72] This paradigm was further promoted during the 1980s and 1990s where plastic was used in conjunction with media to intensify the view of plastic as a mere catalyst for consumerism. In response, artists such as Duane Hanson developed hyperrealist sculptures using polyester resin.[73] These sculptures, including The Cowboy (1995), directly allude to society’s view of plastic as an untruthful material that can only serve to replicate. Famous designers, such as Karim Rashid, exemplify our associations with plastic as a massed material merely used to promote consumer greed.

Currently, the impacts of synthetic material have become apparent. Islands of plastic in the oceans and mounds of packaging in landfills have prompted designers to re-evaluate their use of plastic as a medium. The importance of the environmental impact has resulted in recycled plastic becoming a popular medium for the neo-craft design movement and the DIY movement.

The development of plastic has promoted the growth of multiple industries including design, fashion, art, architecture, technology and many more.[74] Plastic is contradictory in the sense that it both sustains and poisons us. It keeps our food fresh in bacteria free packaging, yet releases harmful toxins into our water systems. Plastic and its byproducts are responsible for our society’s evolution, as well as its destruction. Our relationships with plastic are as paradoxical as the species that devised it.

Environmental impact

Ecological footprint

Plastics have an impact on the ecology of the planet throughout their entire lifecycle. The consequences of their extraction, processing, manufacturing, use and disposal vary in degree. Greenhouse gas emissions, contamination of land, water and air, as well as VOC off gassing are all characteristic of plastic’s negative effects on the planet.

Plastic is derived from natural resources, such as gas and petroleum. During their extraction from the earth (often from land below the oceans), there is always the possibility of an oil spill which can poison the surrounding water, the animals that dwell there and the people who use the water. Tens of thousands of gallons of crude oil are spilled annually through their transportation. Once this oil is made into pellets, they are again transported overseas, with millions of them getting blown off into the ocean, polluting it even more.[75] Greenhouse gas emissions come from the extraction of natural gases and oils when mining. As fuel is burned in the extraction process, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases are released into the atmosphere; which in turn contribute to global warming as the gases trap infrared radiation and heat.[76]

The processing methods for plastic also have consequences on the environment. Making plastic begins with something called a “cracking process.” Oil and natural gases are refined and made into monomers, such as ethylene. Hydrocarbons have a low boiling point and do not liquefy. Instead, they remain a type of gas that is let out from the plants into the air, resulting in mass amounts of pollution ejected into our atmosphere. [77]

In addition, the four types of polymer processing (extrusion, injection, blow and rotational molding) occur in factories which require an exorbitant amount of energy to run machinery, as well as natural resources to melt the plastic and resins. In addition, green house gas emissions are released into the atmosphere.[78] Plastic bags, for example, are made from high density polyethylene which off-gasses. Toxic chemicals and CO2 emissions that are released into the air add up to 1.1 kg of atmospheric pollution per every two bags.[79] This greatly contributes to acid rain, which can be very harmful to the environment and the humans who inhabit the planet.[80] As well, ships distributing plastic bags around the world produce high level pollutants, such as sulphur, which can cause damage to the heart and immune system, disrupt blood circulation, cause loss of eyesight and much more.[81] North America and Western Europe account for 80% of the plastic bags that are shipped. The ecological footprint is still increasing.[82]

Recycling and biodegradability opportunities

Some plastics are more easily recyclable than others, depending on what type of plastic the product is considered. Type 1 plastics (PET) tend to be the easiest to recycle. They are sorted at recycling centres and then sent to be reheated and melted. This process draws out fibers which can be reused for carpets, fiber-fill for jackets, water bottles and much more.[83] A study by the Waste and Resource Programme (WRAP) claims that consumers say it is indistinguishable whether the plastic is virgin or recycled.[84] According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), it takes up to 2/3 less energy to manufacture recycled plastic products. Recycled plastic also requires up to 2/3 less sulphur dioxide, 50% less nitrous oxide and almost 90% less water.[85]

Type 2 plastics (HDPE) can be recycled, but not as easily because their afterlife usage is a little more restricting. The melted plastic can be made into plastic lumber used for park benches, bins, outdoor furniture, playgrounds and decks. It is a very durable plastic and the lifespan is fairly long.[86] It takes approximately 1.75 kg of petroleum per kilo in the manufacturing process for recycled HDPE plastic; which is a fair amount, but far less than starting fresh. [87]

Type 3 plastics (PVC) are difficult and costly to recycle because of the lack of PC plastic there is available. These plastics are normally used once and thrown out.[88] Another problem with recycling PVC is that it off gasses. It omits vapors which, when inhaled or absorbed, can cause developmental problems, central nervous system damage, liver damage and much more. When burned, PVC releases hydrochloric acid fumes as well, which are extremely corrosive. This plastic normally ends up in a landfill where it does not decompose easily and essentially kills the earth.[89]

Type 4 plastics (LDPE) are difficult to recycle as well, due to their extremely light weight. It would take more energy and gas to transport the plastic then it would to recycle it, so most people don’t recycle this type. In most cases, the plastic ends up in the landfill.[90] If recycled, however, it can be turned into plastic bread bags, frozen food bags, floor tiles and lumber.[91]

Type 5 plastics (PP) are used for food containers, but are very uncommon in comparison to other plastics. This makes it extremely difficult to recycle them because the cost for sorting, decontaminating, reheating and melting would be very high for so few plastic products of this type.[92] For that reason, Type 5 plastics are sent to landfills where they take hundreds of years to decompose because they are very durable and can resist extreme heat (up to 164oC).[93]

Type 6 plastics (PS) are considered the most harmful to the earth. They are used for take-out containers, plastic eating utensils, packaging, insulation and much more. They are not recyclable and, because of their ability to insulate and protect, they are not decomposable. They tend to contain blood or fluids from fish, poultry and other meats, and contaminate the earth once thrown into the landfills.[94] Long term exposure to this type of plastic has many side effects on humans and the environment, and their inability to decompose makes polystyrene more dangerous. It can cause neurotoxic, carcinogenic, hematological and cytogenetic effects on humans.[95] Extruded polystyrene is usually made with hydrochlorofluorocarbons which contribute to global warming and ozone depletion, potentially up to 1000 times more than carbon dioxide.[96] And when this plastic rests in a landfill for years, it can be extremely hazardous.

Type 7 plastics (Other) are not normally recycled because of their mixed resin content, which melts or decomposes at different rates.

About 10% of all plastic ends up the ocean, where it harms not only the animals that live there, but also the water that we drink. Water tends to distribute the pollution it acquires, resulting in such problematic situations as “plastic island,” which is located between California and Hawaii. This island is made up of garbage and 80% plastic, and is now twice the size of Texas.[97] It is especially deadly to animals because birds and fish get caught in the plastic, not allowing them to grow, eat or even breathe.[98]

New innovations in biodegradable plastics are progressing at an accelerated rate as the demand for more environmentally responsible materials continues to grow. Some polymers are biodegradable; including polymers made from rice, corn and potatoes, meaning that at least 90% of the material is completely degradable.[99]

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Health Hazards

Huge amounts (close to 1 million tons per year) of chlorine-rich hazardous waste are emitted into the air during PVC production. The VOCs released from burning polyvinyl chloride is very toxic, thus preventing the material from being recycled; only disposed of in landfills. The accidental burning of PVC in fires in buildings or warehouses can be dangerous. PVCs are also known to release VOCs throughout their lifecycle and have been shown to cause a number of different health hazards (in extremely low doses). These include: Cancer, reproductive impairment, Neurotoxity, impaired child development, birth defects and immune system suppression. Flexible PVC products pollute the air with VOCs and also release phthalates that when kept indoors will help promote the growth of hazardous moulds.

Polystyrene, commonly known as foam or blue foam, is a very hazardous material and has been outlawed in many cities and countries because of the negative health hazards it contains. Some of the acute health effects that have been found are irritation of the skin, eyes and upper respiratory tract. After Chronic exposure, studies have found affects to the central nervous system and having affects such as depression, headache, weakness, fatigue and minor problems on kidney function and blood flow.

References

Notes

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  5. ↑ Nature’s Composites .“Composite Building Materials”. 2010. 11 Oct. 2010
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  8. ↑ Haining Pure Plastic Sheet Co., LTD. “Polycarboate Hollow Sheet”. Ttnet, 2010. 11 Oct. 2010 <http://www.ttnet.net/ttnet/gotoprd/CO175/999/0/94251303233333831
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  12. ↑ UPM. “UPM ProFi at the World Expo 2010 in Shanghai”. 2010. 11 Oct. 2010 <http://www.upmprofi.com/upm/internet/upm_profi.nsf/sp?Open&cid=giantskettle>
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Thornton, Joe. "HBN - Environmental Impacts of PVC Building Materials - Summary of Findings." Healthy Building Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Oct. 2011. <http://www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/ThorntonPVCSummary.html

"Polystyrene Fact Sheet, " Foundation for Advancements in Science, Education, Los Angeles, and California.. "Polystyrene Foam Report."Earth Resource Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Oct. 2011. <http://www.earthresource.org/campaigns/capp/capp-styrofoam.html>.

Student contributions

Ryerson University School of Interior Design - Second Year

-Filippova, Kseniya

-Leung, Jasmine

-Pavka, Evan

-Sanderson, Melanie

-Siemon, Elizabeth

-Smiciklas, Diana

See also

Similar materials

Resin

Acrylic

Linoleum

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